Articles
Articles are a collaborative effort to provide a single canonical page on all topics relevant to the practice of radiology. As such, articles are written and edited by countless contributing members over a period of time. A global group of dedicated editors oversee accuracy, consulting with expert advisers, and constantly reviewing additions.
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595 results found
Article
2005 WHO histological classification of odontogenic tumors
The 2005 WHO histological classification of odontogenic tumors lays out a classification system for neoplasms and other tumors related to the odontogenic apparatus. At the time of writing (2016), it is still the most widely used classification system although a new revision is due to come up in ...
Article
2008 WHO classification of tumors of hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues
The 2008 WHO classification of tumors of hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues is at the time of writing (mid 2016) the most widely used classification system.
Classification
Hodgkin lymphoma
nodular lymphocyte predominance
classical Hodgkin lymphoma
nodular sclerosing
mixed cellularity
ly...
Article
2014 WHO classification of endometrial stromal tumors
Endometrial stromal tumors (EST) constitute <2% of all uterine tumors and <10% of uterine mesenchymal neoplasms 1.
Over the past four decades, EST classification has gone through various modifications, starting from the earliest study by Norris and Taylor 2. This was primarily due to the rarit...
Article
Acinic cell carcinoma (lung)
Acinic cell carcinoma of the lung (also known as a Fechner tumor) is a type of lung carcinoma of the salivary gland type. It is extremely rare, especially when it presents in the form of primary acinic cell carcinoma.
Pathology
Histologically, they are comprised of clear cells with abundant gr...
Article
Acquired tracheo-esophageal fistula
An acquired tracheo-esophageal fistula refers to a pathological communication between the trachea and esophagus due to a secondary cause
Pathology
Acquired causes of tracheo-oesophagal fistulae can be divided into those that are related to malignancy (common) and those from other causes (unco...
Article
Acute airspace opacification with lymphadenopathy (differential)
Acute airspace opacification with lymphadenopathy is a subset of the differential diagnosis for generalised airspace opacification and includes:
post-obstructive causes (usually chronic, but 'new' changes can occur)
primary lung cancer
pulmonary metastases
lymphoma/leukemia
infection
prim...
Article
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a malignant disorder of the bone marrow characterized by the proliferation of the lymphoid progenitor cells.
Epidemiology
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is the commonest form of childhood leukemia. It accounts for 80% of pediatric leukemia cases but only 20%...
Article
Adenocarcinoma in situ, minimally invasive adenocarcinoma and invasive adenocarcinoma of lung
Adenocarcinoma in situ, minimally invasive adenocarcinoma and invasive adenocarcinoma of the lung are relatively new classification entities which replace the now-defunct term bronchoalveolar carcinoma (BAC).
In 2011 the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer (IASLC) and several...
Article
Adenocarcinoma in situ of the lung
Adenocarcinomas in situ (AIS) of the lung refer to a relatively new entity for a pre-invasive lesion in the lung. This entity partly replaces the noninvasive end of the previous term bronchoalveolar carcinoma. Adenocarcinoma in situ is defined as a localised adenocarcinoma of <3 cm that exhibits...
Article
Adenocarcinoma of the duodenum
Duodenal adenocarcinoma is the most common primary malignancy of the duodenum.
Epidemiology
Adenocarcinoma is the most common primary malignant neoplasm of the duodenum. It represents 0.3% of all gastrointestinal malignancies and accounts for 50-70% of small bowel adenocarcinomas occurring ei...
Article
Adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal glands
Adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal glands is rare, with few cases reported in the literature since it was first described in 1996 1. Primary adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland is extremely rare; only 9 cases have been reported in the literature 1,2. It can be classified into high- and low-grade ma...
Article
Adenocarcinoma of the lung
Adenocarcinoma of the lung is the most common histologic type of lung cancer. Grouped under the non-small cell carcinomas of the lung, it is a malignant tumor with glandular differentiation or mucin production expressing in different patterns and degrees of differentiation.
This article brings...
Article
Adenocarcinoma (urinary bladder)
Adenocarcinoma of the urinary bladder is rare and accounts for only ~1% of all bladder cancers (90% are transitional cell carcinomas).
Pathology
Metaplasia of urinary bladder induced by chronic irritation or infection can lead to adenocarcinoma. Pathological types of adenocarcinoma of the urin...
Article
Adenoid cystic carcinoma
Adenoid cystic carcinomas are a rare histological subtype of adenocarcinoma.
Pathology
Adenoid cystic carcinomas are generally considered low grade 4. The tumors have a notable tendency for perineural spread.
Location
They have a wide distribution and mainly occur in relation to the airways,...
Article
Adenoid cystic carcinoma of lung
Adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) of the lung is a type of non-small cell lung cancer. They are classified under lung carcinomas of the salivary gland type. Primary occurrence in the lung parenchyma is rare, while in the thorax they occur more commonly as adenoid cystic carcinoma of the tracheobron...
Article
Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the breast
Adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) of the breast is a rare subtype of breast cancer.
Epidemiology
They account for only 0.1-0.4% of all breast cancers.
Pathology
The tumor demonstrates a strikingly characteristic microscopic pattern similar to that of adenoid cystic carcinoma of the salivary gla...
Article
Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the salivary glands
Adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) of the salivary glands is the most common malignancy involving the minor salivary glands and the second most common malignancy involving the parotid gland.
Pathology
Adenoid cystic carcinomas arise more commonly in the minor salivary glands (~55%) than in the maj...
Article
Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the tracheobronchial tree
Adenoid cystic carcinomas of the tracheobronchial tree are a type of low-grade tracheal tumor. They are considered to be the second most common primary tumor of the trachea.
Epidemiology
They are usually first recognised in patients in their 4th and 5th decades. There is no recognised gender p...
Article
Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor
Adenomatoid odontogenic tumors are rare and differ from most other dentition related lesions in that they more frequently occur in the maxilla.
Epidemiology
They are also seen more frequently in females, most frequently in the second decade of life.
Radiographic features
They present as an e...
Article
Adenosquamous carcinoma (cervix)
Adenosquamous cell carcinoma (ASC) of the cervix is a rare histological subtype of cervical carcinoma.
Pathology
It has components of both cervical adenocarcinoma and cervical squamous cell carcinoma.
Prognosis
An adenosquamous histology appears to be an independent predictor of poor outcome...
Article
Adenosquamous carcinoma of lung
Adenosquamous carcinoma (ASC) of the lung is a rare type of non-small cell lung cancer.
Epidemiology
It is thought to constituting 0.4-4% of cases non-small cell lung cancer.
Pathology
The definition of adenosquamous carcinoma indicates a carcinoma showing components of adenocarcinoma and sq...
Article
Adrenal calcification
Adrenal calcification is not a rare finding in healthy asymptomatic people and is usually the result of previous hemorrhage or tuberculosis. Addison disease patients only occasionally develop calcification.
Pathology
Etiology
Hemorrhage
sepsis: Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome
blunt abdomi...
Article
Adrenal collision tumor
An adrenal collision tumor or collision tumor of the adrenal gland is an uncommon condition where two histologically distinct tumors abut each other or are in close proximity in the same adrenal gland.
Pathology
Collision tumors have been reported in nearly every organ, for example, collision ...
Article
Adrenal cortical carcinoma
Primary adrenal cortical carcinoma is a highly malignant but rare neoplasm. It may present as a hormonally active or an inactive tumor.
Epidemiology
Although men and women are affected equally, functioning tumors are more common in females, who are also more likely to have an associated endoc...
Article
Adrenal hemangioma
Adrenal hemangiomas are rare benign tumors that are usually incidentally identified (one example of an adrenal incidentaloma). Its significance mainly relates to the difficulty in differentiation from other malignant lesions.
Epidemiology
Although these can be found at any age, they are most ...
Article
Adrenal metastases
Adrenal metastases are the most common malignant lesions involving the adrenal gland. Metastases are usually bilateral but may also be unilateral. Unilateral involvement is more prevalent on the left side (ratio of 1.5:1).
Epidemiology
They are present at autopsy in up to 27% of patients with ...
Article
Adult cervical lymphadenopathy (differential)
Cervical lymphadenopathy in an adult can result from a vast number of conditions. They include:
malignancy
metastases
from head and neck tumors
lymphoma
other neoplastic lesions
Castleman disease
Kaposi sarcoma
infection
bacterial infection
viral infection
Epstein-Barr virus
herpes ...
Article
Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins are naturally-occurring mycotoxins that are produced by Aspergillus species, especially Aspergillus flavus. They are acutely toxic and carcinogenic.
Acute exposure
High-level aflatoxin exposure can result in acute aflatoxicosis with acute hepatic necrosis, leading to cirrhosis, and ...
Article
Alveolar soft part sarcoma
Alveolar soft part sarcomas are rare, highly vascular, deep soft tissue malignancy that is classically seen in the lower extremities of young adults. They account for <1% of all soft tissue sarcomas.
Epidemiology
There is a slight female predilection in patients less than 30 years old 1.
Path...
Article
Ameloblastoma
Ameloblastomas are locally aggressive benign tumors that arise from the mandible, or, less commonly, from the maxilla. Usually present as a slowly but continuously growing hard painless lesion near the angle of the mandible in the 3rd to 5th decades of life, which can be severely disfiguring if ...
Article
Anal cancer
Anal cancer is a relatively uncommon, accounting for less than 2% of large bowel malignancies, and most of the cases are made of squamous cell carcinoma.
Epidemiology
It accounts for less than 2% of large bowel malignancies and 1-6% of anorectal tumors (~1.5% of all gastrointestinal tract mal...
Article
Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) fusion oncogene positive non small cell lung cancer
Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) fusion oncogene positive non small cell lung cancer refers to a specific set of non small cell lung cancers that contain an inversion in chromosome 2. They are associated with specific clinical features, including never or light smoking history, younger age, and ...
Article
Anatomy curriculum
The anatomy curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core anatomy knowledge for radiologists and imaging specialists.
General anatomy
Neuroanatomy
Head and neck anatomy
Thoracic anatomy
Abdominal and pelvic anatomy
Spinal anat...
Article
Angiosarcoma of breast
Breast angiosarcomas are a rare vascular breast malignancy.
Epidemiology
As primary tumors of the breast, they account for ~0.04% 2 of all breast cancers and tend to occur in younger women, in their 3rd to 4th decades.
Secondary angiosarcoma, related to prior therapy of breast cancer, has an ...
Article
Ann Arbor staging system
The Ann Arbor staging system is the landmark lymphoma staging classification system for both Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
It is named after the town of Ann Arbor in the US state of Michigan where the Committee on Hodgkin's Disease Staging Classification met in 1971 to agree on it...
Article
Anterior mediastinal germ cell tumors
Germ cell tumors are one of the causes of anterior mediastinal mass, and any of the germ cell histologies may be identified. They can therefore be divided histologically into:
seminoma
non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT)
embryonal cell carcinoma
choriocarcinoma
yolk sac tumor
teratom...
Article
Anterior mediastinal mass in the exam
Getting a film with an anterior mediastinal mass in the exam is one of the many exam set-pieces that can be prepared for.
The film goes up and after a couple of seconds pause, you need to start talking:
CXR
There is a left sided mediastinal mass that makes obtuse angles with the mediastinal c...
Article
Apocrine carcinoma of the breast
Apocrine carcinoma of the breast is a rare variant of breast cancer. The diagnosis is mainly pathological as it is difficult to differentiate from other forms of breast cancer on imaging.
Epidemiology
It accounts for about 4% of all cases. It is seen most often in females in the age group of 5...
Article
Appendiceal mucocele
Appendiceal mucoceles occur when there is an abnormal accumulation of mucin causing abnormal distention of the vermiform appendix due to various neoplastic or non-neoplastic causes.
Epidemiology
The reported prevalence at appendectomy is 0.2-0.3%. They are thought to typically present in middl...
Article
Architectural distortion in mammography
Architectural distortion is a mammographic descriptive term in breast imaging. It may be visualized as tethering or indentation of breast tissue.
Pathology
Architectural distortion per se is not a mass. It is often due to a desmoplastic reaction in which there is focal disruption of the normal...
Article
Asbestosis
Asbestosis refers to later development of diffuse interstitial fibrosis secondary to asbestos fiber inhalation and should not be confused with other asbestos related diseases.
Epidemiology
Asbestosis typically occurs 10-15 years following the commencement of exposure to asbestos and is dose re...
Article
Assessment of thyroid lesions (general)
Assessment of thyroid lesions is commonly encountered in radiological practice.
Thyroid mass
hyperplastic / colloid nodule / nodular hyperplasia: 85%
adenoma
follicular: 5%
others: rare
carcinoma
papillary: 60-80% of carcinomas
follicular: 10-20%
medullary: 5%
anaplastic: 1-2%
thyroi...
Article
Asymmetrical density in mammography
Asymmetrical mammographic density is a mammographic morphological descriptor. It is given when there is increased density in one of the breasts, on either one or both standard mammographic views but without evidence of a discrete mass. An asymmetrical density can be further characterized as:
ma...
Article
Atypical ductal hyperplasia
Atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) is a histologically borderline lesion that has some, but not all the features of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). Sometimes the distinction between ADH and DCIS is simply on the basis of the number of ducts involved.
Pathology
Atypical ductal hyperplasia is a...
Article
Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor
Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors (AT/RT) are an uncommon WHO Grade IV tumor, which in the vast majority of cases occurs in young children less than two years of age. It most frequently presents as a posterior fossa mass. AT/RT often resembles medulloblastoma by imaging and even H&E microscopy, ...
Article
BALT lymphoma
BALT lymphoma is an abbreviated term for bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. These neoplasms fall under the broader umbrella of mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas. It is sometimes considered a type of primary pulmonary lymphoma.
Clinical presentation
Up to half of pat...
Article
Bat wing opacities (lungs)
Bat's wing or butterfly pulmonary opacities refer to a pattern of bilateral perihilar shadowing. It is classically described on a frontal chest radiograph but can also refer to appearances on chest CT 3-4.
Differential diagnosis
Bat's wing pulmonary opacities can be caused by:
pulmonary edema...
Article
Benign and malignant characteristics of breast lesions at ultrasound
Benign and malignant characteristics of breast lesions at ultrasound allow the classification as either malignant, intermediate or benign based on work published by Stavros et al. in 1995.
Radiographic features
Ultrasound
Malignant characteristics (with positive predictive values)
sonographi...
Article
Benign metastasising tumors
There are a number of benign metastasising tumors:
benign metastasising meningioma 1,2
benign metastasising leiomyoma 3
primary adenoma of thyroid 4
giant cell tumor of bone 5
Article
Bethesda criteria of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer
The Bethesda criteria are an alternative to the Amsterdam criteria for the clinical diagnosis of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).
Diagnosis of HNPCC is made if any of the following criteria are fulfilled:
Amsterdam criteria are met
2 or more HNPCC related malignancies
pa...
Article
Bilateral testicular lesions
Bilateral testicular lesions have a relatively limited differential diagnosis.
Differential diagnosis
Neoplastic
lymphoblastic leukemia (acute or chronic)
lymphoma (non-Hodgkin's)
primary testicular lymphoma is rare but the testes are often the site of lymphoma/leukemia recurrence due to ...
Article
Bing-Neel syndrome
Bing-Neel syndrome is an extremely rare neurological complication of Waldenström macroglobulinemia where there is malignant lymphocyte infiltration into the central nervous system (CNS).
Epidemiology
The exact incidence is unknown, however in one study of patients with Waldenström macroglobuli...
Article
BI-RADS IV
A BIRADS IV lesion under the breast imaging reporting and data system refers to a suspicious abnormality. BIRADS IV lesions may not have the characteristic morphology of breast cancer but have a definite probability of being malignant. A biopsy is recommended for these lesions. If possible, the ...
Article
Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm
Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm (BPDCN) is a rare haematologic malignancy. It was previously termed as blastic natural-killer lymphoma or agranular CD4+ natural killer cell leukemia.
Epidemiology
It only represent a very small proportion (~0.44%) of all haematologic malignancies 4...
Article
Bone lesions with sequestrum
There are several bony lesions that can involve or depict a sequestrum.
They include:
Common
brodie abscess: osteomyelitis
Less common
eosinophilic granuloma
certain soft tissue tumors (with bony extension)
malignant fibrous histiocytoma
lymphoma
metastasis (especially from breast car...
Article
Bone marrow
Normal bone marrow is divided into red and yellow marrow, a distinction made on the grounds of how much fat it contains.
Gross anatomy
Red marrow is composed of:
hematopoietic cells
supporting stroma
reticulum (phagocytes and undifferentiated progenitor cells)
scattered fat cells
a rich v...
Article
Bony sequestrum (mnemonic)
Mnemonics to help remember common causes of bony sequestrum include:
E-FILM
LIFE
FILE
Mnemonics
E-FILM
E: eosinophilic granuloma
F: fibrosarcoma
I: infection (Brodie abscess)
L: lymphoma (skeletal)
M: malignant fibrous histiocytoma or metastasis (especially from breast carcinoma)
LI...
Article
Borderline ovarian serous cystadenoma
Borderline ovarian serous cystadenomas lie in the intermediate range in the spectrum of ovarian serous tumors and represent approximately 15% of all serous tumors.
Epidemiology
They present at a younger age group 1-2 than the more malignant serous cystadenocarcinomas with a peak age of present...
Article
Brachytherapy
Brachytherapy, also known as sealed source radiotherapy or endocurietherapy, is a form of radiotherapy where a radioactive source is placed, under the guidance of imaging, within or next to the area requiring treatment.
Brachytherapy is commonly used to treat localised prostate cancer, breast c...
Article
BRAF
BRAF (B-Raf proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase) is a proto-oncogene, encoding for a serine/threonine protein kinase. Mutations of BRAF are the most common alteration of the RAS/MAPK pathway and these have been identified in a variety of tumors and congenital syndromes including 1-5: ...
Article
Brain metastases
Brain metastases are estimated to account for approximately 25-50% of intracranial tumors in hospitalised patients. Due to great variation in imaging appearances, these metastases present a common diagnostic challenge which can importantly affect the management approach for individual patients.
...
Article
Brain tumors in infancy
Common brain tumors in infancy (i.e. under one year of age) are quite different from those of brain tumors in adulthood. Most are located in the supratentorial region (~65%) and they carry a poor prognosis.
The frequency of these tumors varies according to studies, but the most common brain tum...
Article
Breast abscess
A breast abscess is a relatively rare but significant complication of mastitis that may occur during breastfeeding, particularly in primiparous women. The clinical context is a key to diagnosis as imaging appearances (particularly ultrasound) can mimic many other entities such as breast carcinom...
Article
Breast cancer (summary)
This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists
Breast cancer is the commonest malignancy in female patients.
Reference article
This is a summary article; read more in our article on breast cancer.
Summary
epidemiology
[content pending]
presentation
breast lump
c...
Article
Breast imaging-reporting and data system (BI-RADS)
BI-RADS classification is proposed by the American College of Radiology (ACR), last updated in November 2015, and is a widely used classification system at the time of writing this article (July 2016).
The BI-RADS acronym stands for Breast Imaging-Reporting and Data System which is a widely acc...
Article
Breast implant associated - anaplastic large cell lymphoma
Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma (BIA-ALCL) is a rare form of T-cell lymphoma which has primarily been associated with textured breast implants.
Epidemiology
Cases have been reported as early as 1 year after surgery and as late as 37 years postaugmentation mammoplasty...
Article
Breast lymphoma
Breast lymphoma refers to involvement of the breast with lymphoma and may be primary or secondary.
Epidemiology
Both primary and secondary breast lymphoma are rare accounting for ~ 0.5% (range 0.3-1.1%) of all breast malignancies.
Clinical presentation
Breast lymphoma may present either as a...
Article
Breast MRI
Breast MRI is the most sensitive method for detection of breast cancer. Depending on international health regulations, it is either applied for screening of women at high risk for developing breast cancer (e.g. BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers), as an additional diagnostic test in pretherapeutic breast ...
Article
Breast neoplasms
There are many types of breast neoplasms, which can be divided into the following broad oversimplified categories as a starting point.
intralobular (epithelial and stromal)
interlobular
breast lymphoma
metastasis to breast
Intralobular and interlobular refer to the terminal duct lobular un...
Article
Breast sarcoma
Breast sarcoma refers to a relatively heterogenous group of rare breast tumors which can include:
angiosarcoma of the breast
pleomorphic sarcoma of the breast
fibrosarcoma of the breast
myxofibrosarcoma of the breast
leiomyosarcoma of the breast
primary osteosarcoma of the breast
Epidemi...
Article
Bright rim sign in dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors
The bright rim sign, also known as the hyperintense ring sign, has been described in dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors (DNET) and is seen, as the name so aptly describes, as a rim of high signal around the DNET on FLAIR sequences.
The pathologic correlate of this sign is glioneural elemen...
Article
British Thoracic Society guidelines for pulmonary nodules
British Thoracic Society guidelines for pulmonary nodules were published in August 2015 for the management of pulmonary nodules seen on CT. In the United Kingdom, they supersede the Fleischner Society guidelines.
They are based initially on identifying whether the nodule is solid or subsolid an...
Article
Bronchovascular spread (mnemonic)
A mnemonic to remember diseases that undergo bronchovascular spread is:
SKILL
Mnemonic
S: sarcoidosis
K: Kaposi sarcoma
I: infection: pneumocystis pneumonia/tuberculosis
L: lymphoma
L: lymphangitis carcinomatosis
Article
Bulging duodenal papilla
Major duodenal papilla is a conic or cylindric protuberance at the medial aspect of the descending or horizontal duodenum at the site of the sphincter of Oddi. It is finding on small bowel follow-though (and endoscopy) and has a relatively long differential.
On cross sectional imaging, the unde...
Article
Burkitt lymphoma
Burkitt lymphoma is an aggressive B-cell lymphoma predominantly affecting children.
Epidemiology
Burkitt lymphoma is the most common (40%) type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in childhood. Median age is eight years with a male predominance (M:F = 4:1) 1. It is less common in adults, accounting for 1-...
Article
CA-125
CA-125 is a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein found on the surface of Mullerian and coelomic epithelial-derived cell types, and is the best known tumor marker for epithelial ovarian cancer 6. Importantly, it may also be elevated in several other conditions (see differential diagnosis section be...
Article
CA 15-3
Carcinoma antigen 15-3, usually shortened to CA 15-3 is a tumor marker used in monitoring breast cancer. The test detects levels of MUC-1, a mucin protein in the blood. MUC-1 is thought to be important in the invasiveness and metastasization of cancer cells.
Physiology
MUC-1 is a normal epithe...
Article
CA 19-9
CA 19-9 (carbohydrate antigen 19-9 or cancer antigen 19-9) is a serum antigen (monosialoganglioside) that has increased diagnostic use in the management of several malignancies, mainly of hepatopancreaticobiliary origin. It is non-specific, however, and can rise in both malignant and non-maligna...
Article
CA 27-29
CA 27-29 is a tumor marker and is a soluble form of glycoprotein MUC1. It may be elevated in patients with breast cancer. Tumors of the colon, stomach, kidney, lung, ovary, pancreas, uterus, and liver may also raise CA 27-29 levels.
Certain non-malignant conditions are also associated with its ...
Article
Calcified glial tumors (mnemonic)
In order of decreasing frequency, a useful mnemonic to remember glial tumors which calcify is:
Old Elephants Age Gracefully
Mnemonic
O: oligodendroglioma
E: ependymoma
A: astrocytoma
G: glioblastoma
Article
Calcified mediastinal lymph nodes (differential)
There are numerous causes of calcified mediastinal lymph nodes.
Common causes include:
infectious granulomatous diseases
tuberculosis
histoplasmosis
sarcoidosis
silicosis
treated lymphoma
Uncommon causes include:
Pneumocystis jiroveci (PCP) pneumonia
metastases
thyroid carcinoma: papi...
Article
Calcifying pulmonary metastases (mnemonic)
A useful mnemonic to remember the causes of calcifying pulmonary metastases is:
BOBCAT
Mnemonic
B: bone (chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma)
O: ovary
B: breast
C: colon
A: any primary post-chemotherapy
T: thyroid
Article
Cancer staging list
Cancer staging using a number of systems to help direct treatment and aid prognosis.
Staging systems
TNM
FIGO (in gynecological cancer)
Dukes staging system
Examples
Breast
breast cancer staging
Chest
lung cancer staging
malignant pleural mesothelioma staging
Gastrointestinal
esopha...
Article
Cannonball metastases (lungs)
Cannonball metastases refer to large, well circumscribed, round pulmonary metastases that appear, well, like cannonballs. The French term "envolée de ballons" which translates to "balloons release" is also used to describe this same appearance.
Metastases with such an appearance are classically...
Article
Carcinoembryonic antigen
Serum carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is a cell-adhesive glycoprotein that was discovered in colorectal cancer in 1965, and is hence one of the oldest and most used tumor markers. Its name derives from its normal expression in fetoembryonic liver, gut and pancreas tissue.
Normal range of CEA is ...
Article
Carcinoid heart disease
Carcinoid heart disease is a known complication of carcinoid tumors, and is particularly prevalent in patients who develop carcinoid syndrome.
Epidemiology
Cardiac lesions are present in approximately 50% of patients with carcinoid syndrome 1.
Clinical presentation
Presentation may be subtle...
Article
Carcinoid tumor
Carcinoid tumors are a type of neuroendocrine tumor that can occur in a number of locations. Carcinoid tumors arise from endocrine amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation (APUD) cells that can be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract as well as other organs (e.g. lung). In general, they...
Article
Carcinoma of the cervix
Carcinoma of the cervix is a malignancy arising from the cervix. It is the third most common gynaecologic malignancy (after endometrial and ovarian).
Epidemiology
It typically presents in younger women with the average age of onset at around 45 years.
Risk factors
human papillomavirus (HPV)...
Article
Carcinosarcoma
Carcinosarcomas are highly malignant biphasic tumors with both carcinomatous (epithelial) and sarcomatous (bone, cartilage, or skeletal muscle) components.
Pathology
It can arise in many organs:
lung 5: pulmonary carcinosarcoma
esophagus 1: esophageal carcinosarcoma
genitourinary tract 2
...
Article
Cardiac myxoma
Cardiac myxomas, although uncommon are one of the commonest primary cardiac tumors and account for ~50% primary benign cardiac tumors.
Epidemiology
Cardiac myxomas are the most common primary cardiac tumor in adults but are relatively infrequent in childhood, where cardiac rhabdomyomas are mo...
Article
Cardiophrenic angle lesions
The cardiophrenic space is usually filled with fat. However, lesions originating above or lower to the diaphragm can present as cardiophrenic angle lesions.
The more common lesions encountered include:
pericardial fat pad
pericardial cyst
pericardial fat necrosis
Morgagni's hernia
lymphade...
Article
Carney-Stratakis syndrome
Carney-Stratakis syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant condition comprising of familial paraganglioma and gastric stromal sarcoma.
Terminology
It is considered to be distinct from, but perhaps related to, the Carney triad 1. Neither should be confused with the unrelated Carney complex.
Histor...
Article
Causes of perfusion defects on a VQ scan
There are several causes leading to a perfusion defect on a VQ scan with an acute pulmonary embolus being only one of them:
Vascular causes
acute pulmonary embolus
previous pulmonary embolus (including fat embolism, thromboembolism, air embolism, tumor)
vasculitides affecting the pulmonary v...